Executive Summary
Recent protests and continued resistance to compulsory hijab suggest that the Islamic Republic faces a challenge extending beyond public order. Since 1979, the regime has linked women’s appearance to citizenship, national identity, and revolutionary legitimacy. Women continue to ignore hijab rules despite tougher enforcement, as compulsory hijab continues to be a contentious issue in Iran.
Key Points
- Following the 1979 Revolution and the Iran-Iraq War, Iran linked hijab to patriotism and citizenship, transforming it from a religious obligation into a symbol of revolutionary identity.
- The Women, Life, Freedom movement marked the most significant challenge to this symbolic order, rejecting the state’s authority to define citizenship through women’s appearance.
- Despite a new hijab law that imposes severe penalties, including prison sentences of up to 10 years, authorities continue to expand enforcement measures. UN experts have warned that the law could amount to gender apartheid, while ongoing resistance suggests the government is still struggling to secure compliance.
- Women have played a leading role in anti-government protests in 2026, and the continued prosecution of public figures over hijab violations shows that the conflict remains unresolved.
Analysis
Women were key participants in the 1979 Revolution, joining Islamist, leftist, and other opposition groups to bring political change. Soon after, the March 1979 protests against compulsory veiling became the first major challenge to the new Islamic Republic, linking women’s appearance to citizenship and state legitimacy.
The Iran-Iraq War strengthened that link. As women took on roles as mothers, nurses, and volunteers, the state elevated their wartime labour into a symbol of national resistance, reframing the hijab from a religious obligation into a political symbol of patriotism and sacrifice. The resulting figure of the “ideal revolutionary woman” became a central component of the regime’s legitimacy narrative.
Women, Life, Freedom challenged more than a dress code. It was about who has the authority to define citizenship and belonging in the Islamic Republic. Interviews with 2022 protest participants bear this out: while Mahsa Amini’s death was the immediate trigger, Demonstrators cited a broad range of grievances, including economic hardship, lack of political freedom, and distrust of officials. The movement therefore reflected broader dissatisfaction with state policies, extending beyond opposition to compulsory hijab.
Nearly four years later, that contest remains unresolved. Visible non-compliance persists across Tehran and other cities even as the state moves to a harsher legal framework. The 2023 Hijab and Chastity Bill introduced tiered penalties and prison terms for repeated violations, and UN special rapporteurs have characterised the law as enabling systemic discrimination against women. Enforcement has also turned visibly against public figures: in June 2026, singer Parastoo Ahmadi was sentenced to 74 lashes for performing without a hijab in a 2024 livestreamed concert. This shows that the state increasingly relies on coercion because it can no longer secure voluntary compliance. It is using laws and punishments to maintain a social order that it once upheld through its symbolic authority.
Policy Implications
- Women’s visibility in public space should be treated as a political indicator of state-society relations, not solely a cultural issue.
- Escalating enforcement in response to persistent non-compliance offers a useful indicator of evolving pressures on regime legitimacy.
- Monitoring long-term trends in compliance and enforcement may provide policymakers with early insights into shifts in state–society relations before they manifest in more overt forms of political contestation.
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